Language and Power

The Influence of Language: Exploring the Link Between Language and Power

Throughout history, language has been a powerful tool used by individuals in positions of authority. For instance, Hitler's words led to the participation of thousands in one of the most horrifying genocides in recorded history. This raises the question: how does language establish and maintain power? This article will delve into the ways in which language is used to create and reinforce power, examining different types of power, language features that represent power, discourse analysis, and key theories that explain the relationship between language and power.

The Role of Language in Establishing Power

Linguist Shân Wareing (1999) identifies three main types of power: political, personal, and social group power.

Political power is held by individuals in positions of authority, such as politicians and law enforcement. Personal power is based on one's occupation or societal role, with higher authorities holding more power. Social group power is held by a group of individuals due to factors such as class, ethnicity, gender, or age.

Wareing further suggests that these types of power can be divided into two categories: instrumental power and influential power. People or organizations may possess one or both forms of power.

The Influence of Instrumental Power

Instrumental power is typically associated with authoritative figures who possess power solely because of their position. Those with instrumental power do not need to persuade or justify their authority; it is inherently recognized by others. Examples include headteachers, government officials, and law enforcement. Language is often used by those with instrumental power to maintain and enforce their authority.

Common language features associated with instrumental power include the use of formal register, imperative sentences, modal verbs, mitigation, conditional sentences, declarative statements, and Latinate words.

The Impact of Influential Power

Influential power refers to individuals or groups who do not inherently possess authority but strive to gain power and influence over others. This type of power is often found in fields such as politics, media, and marketing, where individuals may use language to persuade others to support their beliefs or agendas.

Key language features associated with influential power include assertions, metaphors, loaded language, and embedded assumptions.

In some situations, both forms of power may be at play, such as in politics, where politicians hold both authoritative power (enforcing laws) and influential power (persuading citizens to vote for them and their policies).

The Role of Language and Power in Society

The use of language to assert power is evident in various aspects of society. It can be utilized to manipulate beliefs, sway consumer choices, or enforce rules and laws. Some common examples include the media, advertising, politics, speeches, education, law, and religion.

Language and Power in Politics

Politics and power often go hand in hand, with both instrumental and influential power at play. Elected officials have authority over citizens, but they also rely on persuasive language to maintain their power and gain support for their policies.

Understanding the connection between language and power can help us recognize and critically evaluate how language is used in different contexts. The influence of language is undeniable, and its impact should not be underestimated.

The Power of Language in Politics

In the world of politics, language holds immense power, often used as a tool to sway opinions and gain control. This practice, known as political rhetoric, involves the strategic use of words and phrases for persuasive purposes. Let's delve into some common techniques used in political rhetoric:

Repetition - repeating key phrases, like Tony Blair's "Education, Education, Education" policy, to emphasize a point.
First-person plural pronouns - "we" and "us" - to create a sense of unity and inclusion, as often seen when the Queen uses the royal "we".
Hyperbole - exaggerated statements used to intensify a message.
Rhetorical questions - asking questions not intended for a response, but to make a point.
Leading questions - strategically crafted questions that lead the audience to a desired conclusion.
Tone and intonation changes - varying tone and pitch to convey emotion and highlight important points.
Lists - using a series of items to drive home a message or highlight a specific agenda.
Imperative verbs - using commanding or urging verbs like "act now" or "speak up" to inspire action.
Humor - incorporating jokes or satire to make a point or lighten the mood.
Tautology - repeating the same idea using different words, for example "it's 7 am in the morning".
Prevarication - skillfully avoiding answering direct questions.

Can you think of any politicians who frequently employ these tactics? Do you believe they are effective in persuading others?

The Role of Language in Maintaining Power

Not only in politics, but language also plays a crucial role in maintaining and enforcing power in other aspects. Here are some additional linguistic features commonly used in spoken and written communication that have a powerful impact:

Lexical choice

Emotive language - using words that evoke strong emotions to sway the audience, like the House of Commons' use of "depraved", "sickening", and "unimaginable".
Figurative language - employing metaphors, similes, and personification to add depth to a statement or convey a message.
Forms of address - those in power may use more formal ways of addressing others, such as "miss", "sir", or "ma'am".
Synthetic personalization - a technique used by powerful institutions to address the masses as individuals, creating a sense of friendliness while reinforcing their authority. Can you spot any of these features in the quote below? "And you have changed the face of Congress, the Presidency, and the political process itself. Yes, you, my fellow Americans, have forced the spring. Now we must do the work the season demands." (Bill Clinton, January 20, 1993)

Grammar

Interrogatives - asking questions to engage the audience, such as "are you ready for a brighter future?".
Modal verbs - using words like "should" and "must" to convey a sense of obligation or persuasion.
Imperative sentences - giving commands or requests, for instance, "vote now!"

Phonology

Alliteration - repeating sounds or letters for emphasis or memorability.
Assonance - repeating vowel sounds for a similar impact.
Rising and falling intonation - varying pitch to convey emotion or emphasize a point.

Conversational features

Even in everyday conversations, power dynamics can be observed through the use of language. Here is a chart to identify dominant and submissive participants in a conversation:

The dominant participant:

Sets the subject and tone of the conversation
Talks more than others
Interrupts others
Uses more formal forms of address, such as "sir" or "ma'am".

The submissive participant:

Responds to the dominant participant
Listens more than they talk
Follows the direction of the conversation
Avoids interrupting others
May become unresponsive when they have had enough of the conversation

Research on the relationship between language and power has shown that those seeking to gain or maintain power often utilize specific linguistic strategies to establish dominance in a conversation.

The Power of Language in Politics

Language is a crucial instrument in the realm of politics, with politicians and influential institutions strategically utilizing various linguistic elements to sway and persuade others. From carefully chosen words to the tone of voice, these tactics can greatly impact the success of persuasive arguments. While the effectiveness of these strategies is a subject of debate, one thing is clear - language and power are inextricably linked in the political world.

Let's explore some of the key theorists and their theories on language and power, including Fairclough's Language and Power, Goffman's Face Work Theory, Brown and Levinson's Politeness Theory, Coulthard and Sinclair's Initiation-Response-Feedback Model, and Grice's Conversational Maxims.

In his 1984 book "Language and Power," Fairclough delves into how language can be used as a tool to create and maintain power structures within society. He argues that in a capitalist system, power is often divided between the dominant class, such as business owners, and the subordinate class, such as workers. Fairclough's work is heavily influenced by Michel Foucault's discourse and power theories and stresses the importance of critically analyzing language to recognize its use as a means of manipulation by the powerful. This approach, known as critical discourse analysis, focuses on both the power within language and the power behind it.

A crucial aspect of critical discourse analysis is the study of power in discourse, examining language structures, strategies, and vocabulary employed to assert and wield power. The other aspect is the exploration of the sociological and ideological motivations behind the use of power by certain individuals or groups over others. Fairclough also delves into the power dynamics present in advertising, introducing the concept of "synthetic personalization," where large corporations use language to create a sense of personal connection with potential customers.

Brown and Levinson's Politeness Theory, published in 1987, is based on Goffman's Face Work Theory from 1967. Goffman defines "face" as one's social identity and refers to the act of maintaining one's own "face" while also respecting or preserving the "face" of others in social interactions. Brown and Levinson propose that the level of politeness one exhibits is influenced by power relations between individuals. The more powerful one is, the more expected they are to behave with politeness. This theory also encompasses the concepts of face-saving and face-threatening acts, where individuals in weaker positions may take actions to prevent others from being publicly embarrassed.

In 1975, Sinclair and Coulthard introduced the Initiation-Response-Feedback (IRF) model, which can be applied to analyze power dynamics in the classroom between teacher and student. According to this model, the teacher, with the power, initiates discourse by asking a question, the student, without power, responds, and the teacher then provides feedback. This can be observed in the following example:

Teacher - "What did you do this weekend?"
Student - "I went to the museum."
Teacher - "That sounds nice. What did you learn?"

Lastly, Grice's Conversational Maxims, also known as "The Gricean Maxims," are based on his Cooperative Principle, which aims to explain how effective communication is achieved in everyday situations. In his 1975 article "Logic and Conversation," Grice introduces four conversational maxims - quality, quantity, relevance, and manner. These maxims are based on the observation that individuals typically strive to be truthful, informative, relevant, and clear in meaningful conversations. However, these maxims are not always adhered to and can be violated or flouted. Violations, such as lying, are considered a severe breach of communication, while flouting, which occurs more frequently, is seen as a less severe infraction.

Language as a Means of Dominance: Exploring the Relationship between Language and Power

The concept of language and power delves into how language can be wielded as a tool to assert dominance over others. Power dynamics are displayed through vocabulary, strategies, and language structures in discourse, but also influenced by underlying sociological and ideological factors.

The demonstration of power can be observed in various forms of communication, including media, news, advertising, politics, speeches, education, and religion. Strategies such as rhetorical questions, imperative sentences, alliteration, the rule of three, emotive language, modal verbs, and synthetic personalization are commonly utilized to convey dominance.

According to L. Thomas and S. Wareing, there are three main types of power: political, personal, and social group power. These can be further categorized as instrumental power, held by those in authoritative positions, and influential power, used by individuals to sway others.

The power of language is evident in everyday conversations, as exemplified by Grice's Maxims. Violating these maxims, including irony, metaphors, pretending to misunderstand, and using complex vocabulary, can create a sense of power, particularly for those in positions of authority or seeking to appear powerful.

Influential Theorists in the Study of Language and Power

Over the years, numerous theorists have researched the relationship between language and power. Some prominent figures include Foucault, Fairclough, Goffman, Brown and Levinson, Grice, and Coulthard and Sinclair.

Understanding the Dynamic between Language and Power

In conclusion, the intertwined nature of language and power is crucial to recognize when language is being used to manipulate or influence others. By examining power in discourse and the underlying sociological factors, we can gain a deeper understanding of how language is used to assert dominance. Awareness of this dynamic is essential in promoting effective communication and recognizing when language is being used as a tool of control.