Are you familiar with diabetes? It's a condition that affects how your body turns food into energy. There are two types of diabetes: type 1 and type 2. In this article, we'll discuss both types, how to manage diabetes, and even a cool experiment to measure glucose in your urine. Keep reading to learn more about this common condition. Plus, if you or a loved one has diabetes, this article could be really helpful. So, let's get started!

What is sugar diabetes, and what are its symptoms?

Diabetes mellitus or sugar diabetes is a disorder in which the homeostatic mechanism for regulating blood glucose concentration has been impaired. This is due to either being unable to produce insulin or reduced sensitivity of the cells to insulin resulting in an abnormally elevated blood glucose level (hyperglycaemia).

Approximately 350 million people worldwide have diabetes, and over 3 million are in the UK. In a diabetic individual, the cells' ability to uptake glucose has been impaired. As a result, the cells are deprived of glucose and energy despite high blood glucose levels. Individuals with diabetes often complain of tiredness and increased thirst and hunger. They also show signs such as elevated blood glucose levels, glucose in their urine (glycosuria), urinating excessively (polyuria), regular episodes of thrush, weight loss, and blurred vision.

There are two types of diabetes mellitus (sugar diabetes): Type 1 diabetes and Type 2 diabetes. Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disorder in which the body's immune system attacks and destroys the insulin-producing cells of the pancreas, resulting in an inability to produce insulin. Type 2 diabetes is a metabolic disorder in which the body does not produce enough insulin or is unable to use the insulin it does produce effectively. Gestational diabetes is a third type of diabetes that can occur during pregnancy.

Type I diabetes

Type 1 diabetes is a disease that mainly affects children and young individuals. In this condition, the pancreas doesn't produce enough insulin, a hormone that helps regulate blood glucose levels. This happens because the body's immune system mistakenly attacks and destroys the insulin-producing cells in the pancreas.

Due to the lack of insulin, cells in the body can't use glucose from the blood for energy, leading to fatigue and tiredness. Type 1 diabetes is also called insulin-dependent diabetes because insulin injections and a healthy lifestyle are necessary to manage it. Since insulin is a protein hormone, it can't be taken in tablet form. Insulin dosage needs to be adjusted precisely to match the individual's glucose intake. Too much insulin can cause hypoglycemia (low blood sugar), which can result in loss of consciousness. Therefore, blood glucose levels need to be monitored regularly using glucometers, which are machines enhanced with biosensors capable of detecting glucose levels in the blood.

Type II diabetes

Type 2 diabetes, also known as insulin-independent diabetes, is a condition where the body's cells become less responsive to insulin, leading to reduced glucose uptake by the cells and an abnormally elevated blood glucose concentration. It is more common than type 1 diabetes and usually develops progressively in individuals aged over 40, but it can also occur in younger individuals due to obesity and poor diet.

Managing type 2 diabetes involves controlling carbohydrate intake and adjusting it to match the individual's level of physical activity. Insulin injections or supplemental drugs that increase insulin secretion may also be prescribed by doctors in some cases. Blood glucose levels can also be controlled by regulating glucose absorption from the gut using supplemental drugs that slow down the rate at which glucose is absorbed.

To determine the amount of reducing sugar (glucose) present in an unknown urine sample, an alternative version of Benedict's solution can be used. This quantitative test involves a redox reaction between glucose and copper (II) ions in the solution, resulting in a colour change that is directly proportional to the concentration of glucose present in the sample. A solution with low amounts of glucose would have a blue appearance, while a solution with high amounts of glucose would appear colourless. Urine in healthy individuals does not contain any glucose and should.

The procedure

To carry out a quantitative test using Benedict's solution, a calibration curve needs to be generated with a series of standard solutions with known glucose concentrations. This involves making serial dilutions of a stock solution and adding the same volume of Benedict's solution to each standard solution.

The standard solutions and unknown urine samples are then placed in a water bath set at 90°C for approximately 5 minutes to allow colour change to occur. To combat the interference of the white precipitate formed during the reaction, samples are filtered to obtain the filtrate. The concentration of glucose in the unknown urine samples can then be estimated using the calibration curve generated from the standard solutions.

To minimise discrepancies from human interpretation of the colour, a colour be to measure the light absorbance or transmission through the samples. The measured values from the standard solutions can then be used to plot the calibration curve, which can be used to determine the glucose concentration in the unknown urine samples more accurately.

Materials

In order to carry out the quantitative test to determine the concentration of glucose in the urine samples, the following materials are required:

• 10mmol.dm-3 glucose stock solution (made by dissolving 1.8 g glucose in 1 dm3 distilled water)
• Distilled water
• Urine samples from 'Tom', 'Dick', and 'Harry'
• Benedict's solution
• Graduated pipettes or syringes (2 cm3 and 1 cm3)
• Test tubes
• Test-tube rack
• Water bath set at 90°C
• Colourimeter
• Cuvettes
• Gloves
• Pen
• Labels
• Graph paper
• Pencil

To begin the experiment, serial dilutions of the glucose stock solution are made to set up a series of standard solutions with known glucose concentrations. The same volume of Benedict's solution is added to each standard solution, and the samples are placed in a water bath at 90°C for approximately 5 minutes to allow colour change to occur. The samples are then filtered to obtain the filtrate, and the glucose concentration is measured using a colorimeter.

The same procedures from Tom and unknown glucose concentrations. Using the calibration from the standard, the glucose concentration in the urine samples can be estimated. The results are recorded on graph paper and labeled with the appropriate sample name.

It is important to wear gloves during the experiment to prevent contamination of the samples, and to label all samples and test tubes with the appropriate name to prevent mix-ups. The use of a colorimeter helps to minimize discrepancies from human interpretation of the colour, resulting in more accurate measurements. 

Safety instructions

Eye protection should be worn when using Benedict’s solution.

Generating the calibration curve

These are the steps you need to follow to generate the calibration curve.

In serial dilution, the stock solutions create a series of dilutions. This can be done to create a desired range of concentrations (e.g., 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 mmol.dm-3).

First, the test tubes must be labelled and placed on the testing tube rack. Amounts of the stock solution are added to the tubes to achieve the desired concentration. To calculate how much stock solution is needed for each concentration, use the following equation:

‍

To prepare the test tubes for the quantitative test, a fixed volume of Benedict's solution (roughly 2 ml) is added to each test tube, and the solutions are then placed in the water bath for approximately 5 minutes. The contents of the test tubes are then filtered to remove the white precipitates, and 1 ml of the filtrate from each test tube is added to a separate cuvette that has been labelled appropriately.

To use the colourimeter, the wavelength needs to be set to red, which is the complementary colour to blue. This is because a blue solution absorbs red light while reflecting blue.

Before measuring the absorbance of each cuvette, the colourimeter needs to be calibrated to zero absorbance by placing a cuvette containing only distilled water (0 mmol.dm-3) in the colourimeter and pressing the reset button. Alternatively, the absorbance value can be read and kept in mind for plotting the calibration curve.

Each labelled test cuvette is subsequently placed absorb The can by plotting a graph of glucose concentration against absorbance of red light by the solution, using the calibration curve generated from the standard solutions.

‍

That's correct! Diabetes mellitus, also known as sugar diabetes, is caused by the inability to regulate blood glucose concentration. The signs and symptoms of diabetes mell include elevated blood glucose levels, the presence of glucose in the urine (glycosuria), excessive urination (polyuria), regular episodes of thrush, weight loss, and blurred vision.

There are two types of diabetes mellitus: Type I, which is caused by impaired insulin production, and Type II, which is caused by reduced sensitivity of tissue cells to insulin.

Generating a calibration curve is a commonly used approach for estimating the concentration of a drug or substance in an unknown sample by comparing it to a collection of standard samples with known concentrations. In this case, the calibration curve was used to estimate the concentration of glucose in the urine samples.

Benedict's solution turns from blue to colourless in the presence of reducing sugars such as glucose, which is why it was used in this experiment to determine the glucose concentration in the urine samples.

Diabetes

What causes diabetes?

Type I diabetes is thought to be an autoimmune disorder wherein the body’s immune system destroys the insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas.The most common cause of type 2 diabetes is obesity, inactive lifestyle, and unhealthy diet

What is diabetes?

Diabetes is a disorder of abnormally high blood glucose levels due to either low levels of insulin production in the body or low response of the cells to insulin. Since the cells are unable to take up glucose from the blood, individuals with diabetes quickly feel tired. 

What is type II diabetes?        

Type II diabetes is when the cells in the body, especially in the liver, have become insensitive to insulin resulting in hyperglycaemia.

What is type I diabetes?         

Type I diabetes is often due to an autoimmune disorder wherein the body’s immune system destroys the insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas. 

Does glucose in urine always mean diabetes?

The presence of glucose in urine (glycosuria) could be due to either diabetes or kidney damage. 

How do you test for glucose in the urine?      

First a set volume of Benedict’s solution is added to the sample. Then the light absorbance by the solution is measured using a colourimeter. The reading obtained is then used to determine the concentration on a calibration curve. 

Why is it important to know unknown glucose concentrations in urine samples?

Elevated concentration of glucose in urine could be a sign of diabetes or renal failure which need medical attention. 

Does glucose in urine always mean diabetes?

The presence of glucose in urine (glycosuria) could be due to either diabetes or kidney damage.

‍